| Summary | | | | (Wani, 1992). |
| Technology akin to farming existing in an ecosystem | | | | Training & visits on farm level failed but |
| need to be generated. It needs location specific | | | | farmer-training & Farmer-research participation or |
| perfection and adoption. This could be possible by | | | | demonstrations at farmers field did achieve a great |
| supporting KVK & Extension system with technology | | | | success. With constraints of men and resources and |
| testing and refinement. Thus the whole discipline of | | | | crop insurance in vogue, we must induce researchers |
| Agricultural Extension need reforms. On the basis of a | | | | to have direct participatory research at farmer’s |
| broad review presented in this paper, following | | | | doors, on their fields. This venture can be on |
| recommendations could be deduced to reform and | | | | cost-sharing basis or with participatory involvement |
| fine tune technology generation, dissemination and its | | | | of Industry. (SAMETI, Kashmir model refers). Proc. |
| delivery as an agri-pack end product.(APEP) | | | | XXI EECM,2008. |
| 1. The base of discipline of Agriculture extension may | | | | New Approaches |
| be broaded to incorporate all disciplines, management | | | | Insect-pest Management research could be an |
| tools and techniques. It is proposed to name it | | | | example. Some FAO programme results are |
| “Farm Business Management”. It should be | | | | encouraging (Matteson, 2000). Rice IPM research |
| open to all agricultural & allied undergraduates. The | | | | must incorporate farmer-training of farmers. New |
| course curriculum needs training and skill up-gradation | | | | pest management procedures are to be |
| of graduates and post-graduates in techniques like | | | | experimented under farmers field. Minimum use of |
| analysis of data, survey procedures, marketing, | | | | pesticide and eco-friendly application is preferred. |
| economics, rural sociology and farming systems etc. | | | | (Matteson, 2000). |
| 2. Various reformation capsules like Chinese model, | | | | Problems and constraints of technology transfer in |
| African experiences, Dutch model, Netherland model, | | | | India have been reported, (Bairathi, 1998). Similarly |
| Isreal model, California model and Iranian models have | | | | bio-gas technology use or adoption has been full of |
| been reviewed. On the basis of these models a new | | | | constraints detailed . (Prasad and Singh, 1999), these |
| model for technology delivery suitable to our | | | | range from technological, financial, administrative and |
| agro-eco-conditions has been postulated & named as | | | | innovative ones. Proper mechanization and training in |
| Mohi-Model. Once we receive an acceptance for the | | | | operation of such bio gas technology is necessary. |
| model, logistics and plans to execute it could be | | | | An information web networking developed helped |
| formulated. | | | | farmers to improve their income through training and |
| Introduction | | | | advise thus participatory technology transfer is a |
| Four paradigms of Agricultural extension consists of | | | | possible mechanism for improvement in |
| Technology transfer, prevalent since colonial times & | | | | Agri-productivity. (Warren, 2003) |
| later National Agriculture Extension Project (NAEP), | | | | Netherlands Model |
| reshaped in 1970-80 as Training and visit system | | | | Quest for knowledge led Netherland farmers to have |
| across Asia. It involved top down approach. Its role | | | | an association for organic farm produce. This |
| needs disdcussion. The second paradigm called as | | | | association conducted its own farm research and |
| Advisory work is what is present system of | | | | shared its experiences with other farmer members |
| extension, where, government agencies, NGO and | | | | back in 1980. Soon they felt that their experiences |
| technical industries respond to farmers enquiries | | | | lacked experimental details. They approached Govt |
| which we call advisory role. The third paradigm | | | | agricultural Research Organization and started |
| consists of Human Resource Development. This | | | | collaborating with them. The station mandate was to |
| innovation helped Europe and North America. The | | | | assist the development of farming systems in the |
| Universities gave training to rural youth. It is these | | | | area called polder in the village Nagale of Netherland. |
| educated, trained youth which became future | | | | This combination of research and farming practices at |
| farmers in developed countries. What is known as | | | | farmers field tried various crop combinations and |
| outreach system of colleges and universities is still | | | | rotations. The use of nitrogen-fixing crops (Legumes) |
| unknown in our Agricultural Research system including | | | | for maintaining soil fertility and strategic management |
| State Agriculture Universities. A half hearted attempt | | | | of pests and diseases, extending or delaying planting |
| as Agri-business Agri-clinical is still to be backed with | | | | of various crops etc. Some experiences of |
| University, research, banking and economic support. | | | | low-weed-crop production by adopting agronomic |
| Is it which can help us to increase productivity in India | | | | practices like regular harrowing of lands and use of |
| or Asia needs consideration ?. | | | | crop covers were tried. The farmer pressure and self |
| Technology adoption and impact | | | | sustaining groups need to be involved in research |
| The impact of National Agricultural Research Project | | | | experiments of SAU/ICAR and all other KVK farms |
| (NARP) (1986-92) revealed that , technologies | | | | and institutes (Reinders, 2007). This would have both |
| generated were few and adoption rate was not high, | | | | a demonstration and high adoption value. Besides it |
| even then an estimated monetary benefit of Rs.2000 | | | | would be a close to practical field research model |
| per hectare was observed. | | | | (PFRM). |
| Low relationship between technologies developed and | | | | Horizontal, farmer to farmer contacts help |
| adopted demands a mixed farming technology | | | | dissemination of agricultural information. This horizontal |
| capsule as 65% of our farmer’s are small and | | | | expansion of information from one vegetable grower |
| marginal farmers. This needs a total shift to left in | | | | to another in Suden. (Badri, 2001) helped technology |
| our agricultural extension methodology. (Reddy 2001). | | | | adoption. |
| T & V programme initiated with central assistance in | | | | Mass media support for rice production has been |
| state has aroused all round technological awareness | | | | helpful in Bihar. Out of 5 TV talks, 75% farmers |
| among agricultural experts. Its dialogue and | | | | benefited and registered higher production and low |
| technology transfer from University (Scientists) to | | | | disease damages. (1taque, 2000) similar observations |
| experts agricultural extension workers was nearly | | | | are known in J&K. (Wani 2006). Electronic |
| total revolution. The (ZAREC) Zonal Agricultural | | | | technological diffusion of knowledge at Farmer’s |
| advisory Research and Extension counseling was the | | | | fields was helpful, local language and local persons can |
| best plate form to discuss main issues impeding | | | | diffuse ideas and disseminate information and |
| agricultural development. The missionary publication of | | | | communication faster. It is proposed to have |
| production recommendations helps a lot in transfer of | | | | innovative knowledge defusion to women farmers |
| technology. The presentation of production | | | | through local women (Rani and Reddy, 2002). |
| recommendations in local language is helpful in | | | | Farm – Women awareness Module |
| increasing productivity in many countries. (Wani, | | | | Majority of rice producing farmers in Kangra district |
| 2004) | | | | of Himachal Pradesh had no extension personnel |
| Brinjal production technology adoption in Parbani, | | | | contact or electronic or print media information. |
| Mahrastra was the result of social participation, risk | | | | Continuous information on mass media have |
| management guarantee, marketing orientation, | | | | significant impact on use of seed rate, transplantation |
| information websites and communication methods. | | | | time and application of nitrogenous fertilizers in Rice |
| (Dudhak et al 2003). | | | | (Thusoo and Sohi, 2000). A gap existed in knowledge |
| Various limitation of transport, extension staff were | | | | of farmers so far as dose of fertilizer application is |
| the reasons of poor productivity gains in Malakhand | | | | concerned (Yadav and Singh, 2000). |
| agency of Pakistan. (Mohamad et al, 2003). | | | | Farm women adoption rate for use of farm |
| The adoption of legume production technologies | | | | implements was good when uses of such implements |
| under Jhodpur arid conditions was low. The problems | | | | were demonstrated to them. (Sharma et al 2003). |
| as indicated by farmers were small farm size. Small | | | | Farm women were given farm implements to use for |
| holder farmer was less interested to adopt these | | | | a fortnight. Majority found them 78% profitable & |
| technologies. Non existence of market and pricing | | | | 77% compatible. (Sharma and Sharma, 2002). |
| policy, risk of failure, feeding habits, social taboo and | | | | Information from research to farmers via extension |
| lack of Post Harvest Technology (PHT) were | | | | officers was examined. The inter system |
| identified. (Yadev et al, 2003). | | | | communication helps in technology dissemination of |
| Proper guidance or information support was the | | | | dairy farmers in Iran (Rezvanfer, 2001). Rice |
| major constraint in adoption of improved Wheat | | | | cultivation awareness improved when women |
| cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. It contributed to | | | | farmers were trained (Rama Krishnan and |
| 16.8% non-adoption rate among farmers. Other | | | | Mahendram, 2003). Agricultural Knowledge and |
| contributory factors were technological unawareness | | | | information system increased economic efficiency of |
| (13.33%) sloppy land (11.31%), farm input cost | | | | crop production, out put costs, social upgradation and |
| (9.41%), non availability of irrigation (8.29%) and lack | | | | income generation (Carrasco et al, 2003). |
| of inputs (7.95%) (Puran chand et al, 2001). | | | | Extension Briefs – self help options (SHO) |
| Social Structure & Technology Adoption | | | | Small farmers are neglected by extension services |
| Schedule caste farmers in Maharastra have low level | | | | and need proper awareness in Kurram (Haq et al |
| of rice technology adoption. Among 150 such farmers | | | | 2004). Agricultural extension specialists must specialize |
| only 12.6% had high adoption rate (Mankar et | | | | in community structure, development , education |
| al,2004). Adoption of production recommendations of | | | | learning tools, technology and policy issues. Thus |
| Cashew in Maharastra’s Sindhubrug district was | | | | these disciplines or topics need incorporation in Farm |
| 58% (Bhairamkar et al, 2004). Motto of extension | | | | Business Management curriculum. |
| programmes should be reach to unreached, teach to | | | | Partnership process, management and communication |
| un-teached, be known to unknown (Ganesan et al, | | | | should be the main thrust. Co-operative mechanism, |
| 2003) (Wani, 1998). Agricultural productivity in Czch | | | | farm business management and evaluation and |
| Republic increased when information and | | | | monitoring tools should be used. |
| communication in extension system was improved | | | | Seed production programme was successfully |
| for small scale farmers (Slavik, 2003). | | | | implemented by farm women as a self-help group in |
| A survey conducted among 120 farmers in Karnool | | | | Dindigul district of Tamil Nadu (Balasubramanian and |
| district, Andhra Pradesh, India, revealed that | | | | Thamizoli, 2003). Efficiency of extension lies in |
| education, social participation, scientific orientation, risk | | | | bottom up approach in hilly areas. Farmers interest |
| management, mass media exposure, economic and | | | | group awareness was most successful |
| market orientation were positively and significantly | | | | (Muhammad-Zafarullah 2003). Small scale farming |
| correlated with the extent of adoption of | | | | operations using green manure cover improved soil |
| recommended hybrid jowar (sorghum) seed practices | | | | fertility. Participatory extension system helped more |
| by the farmers. Majority of the farmers (43.33%) | | | | adoption of technology in Uganda. (Miiro et al, 2002). |
| had a medium level of the adoption of the | | | | Farmers training and their own information networks |
| recommended practices. (Kumar et al, 2005). It is | | | | helps small holder farmers. Topics including community |
| suggested that five categories of factors determine | | | | involvement, international multicultural projects, |
| the adoption of irrigation systems and are the keys | | | | leadership, learning strategies, new tools and |
| to designing relevant, effective and innovative | | | | technology, volunteer programme , programme |
| irrigation extension programmes among | | | | development and evaluation, public policy issues, |
| horticulturalists. The five categories of factors are : | | | | youth education and partnerships needs introduction |
| Soil type and topography ; crop quality; sowing time; | | | | in Agri-Extension curricula (now proposed as Farm |
| saving water and crop yield (Kaine & Beswell, 2005). | | | | Business Management). Agriculture, natural resources |
| We in J&K under SREP Strategic Research extension | | | | and health/nutrition shall form the basic of new |
| plan of Districts notice lack of information on sowing | | | | agri-farm-business extension system (Logan, 2004). |
| time, seed rate and fertilizer application in almost all | | | | The word extension be replaced with “Farm |
| the crops. Seed treatment awareness helped farmers | | | | Business Management”. |
| to combat paddy blast (Wani, 2006, 2007). | | | | Administrative Bottlenecks |
| Innovative Change | | | | While the Nusa Tenggara Timur Provience is |
| Methodologies for analysis of farming system, options | | | | supposedly following the training and visit model, |
| for development & sustainable eco-friendly farm | | | | agricultural extension Workers receive very little |
| science technology are the needs of the hour. We | | | | training. Other major constraints identified include |
| do have subject-matter-specialists, but the agents | | | | constant restructuring of the Agricultural Department, |
| for evaluating the composite effect of various | | | | poor remuneration, oppressive authority, inadequate |
| discipline oriented technology cover is yet to be | | | | infrastructure, unclear job direction, geographical |
| structured. This is exactly where we should intervene | | | | conditions and bureaucracy. (Leta et al, 2005). This is |
| and restructure the discipline, programmes and | | | | the reason of low technology revolution in rural India |
| divisions of extension education in the country. Infact | | | | and Asia too can be overcomed by transparent, NAR |
| a total change from existing slow action, low | | | | System, which need renaming as National Farm utility |
| innovative, conventional and disintegrated extension | | | | Research and delivery system. |
| system has to be refined into analytic , | | | | By combining biophysical science with social science, it |
| managemental , social, economical, marketable | | | | is possible to increase the impact of biophysical |
| system, so that the whole technology transfer could | | | | science findings at the farm level (Linehan et al, |
| be evaluated in terms of productivity and monetory | | | | 2005). |
| gains per hectare. Different cropping and livestock | | | | Isreal Model |
| patterns and combinations need to be evaluated & | | | | General model of extension in SAU can be seen from |
| monitored. The impact analysis of wide range of | | | | the role of PAU, which needs a total reform. Should |
| Agricultural technology transfer be it training, | | | | we look for Isreal model. Isreal is characterized by |
| entrepreneurship or agri business is needed, both | | | | topographical variations and a wide range of soils, |
| before and after technology application. | | | | enabling the growing and raising of a variety of crops |
| The available research results have to pierce the | | | | and animals. A large increase in population immediately |
| farmers farming practices. Non - adoption is the result | | | | after 1948, required a rapid increase in food |
| of our low productivity levels per unit of land. Inspite | | | | production, followed by development of research and |
| of tremendous yield gains the per unit profitability has | | | | extension facilities and services. In recent years |
| not raised the economic conditions of our farmers. | | | | Isreal, like many other countries, has faced difficulties |
| Our farm economy still fluctuates between | | | | in continuing to supply the level of services it |
| season’s, rainy years and among regions. Now | | | | previously provided. This difficulty led agricultural |
| for any widespread gains from technology, it is | | | | organizations to begin assuming the responsibility of |
| essential to know its impact and adoptability rate. It | | | | partially financing extension for a few years, and later |
| is therefore necessary to develop new technologies | | | | on trying to reflect the cost onto the farmers. |
| after considering socio-organizational arrangements, | | | | Farmers are apparently willing to pay for on-farm |
| local existing soil, water, human needs and resources. | | | | extension visits. Under this system, the Flower Board |
| The local skills need to be known and refinement is | | | | is financing many public extension activities and |
| made to improve profitability. Our experience under | | | | charging the farmer for partial costs of on-farm visits. |
| IVLP showed a net productivity gains of 2 q/hac in | | | | This system operates successfully, aided by reports |
| rice production by improving local village driven plough. | | | | that are filed electronically by agents all over Isreal to |
| Similar innovative ideas local technologies with | | | | the Floriculture Department Head Office, and from |
| improved or exotic one gave good results in | | | | the Head Office to the Flower Board. Advantages of |
| development of profitable farming . (Wani, | | | | the new system are : a tremendous increase in |
| 2004,2003, 2005,2006,2007). | | | | agent-to-farmer commitment; the professional level |
| Reform Capsules | | | | of agents remains at least the same as before; and |
| (i) Chinese Model | | | | the financial situation of the majority of agents is |
| Chinese experiences needs a try under our | | | | better than before . The disadvantage is that some |
| socio-economic conditions. The successful | | | | farmers are consuming less extension than before. |
| improvement of Sheep and Yak herds in china can be | | | | (Wolpson, 2005) |
| a good example for use in India. Under this project | | | | Global Successful extension experiences |
| they first took stock of rangeland and livestock | | | | California Model |
| resources. Then socio-economic conditions of the | | | | California’s land grant extension progamme has |
| livestock breeders were analysed. Livestock and | | | | been successful in assisting agricultural Industries |
| pasture management by rodents was studied. | | | | develop as major world producers. Extension has |
| Rasngeland revegatation methods were tested and | | | | been a leader in facilitating quality-of-life and economic |
| propagated. Seeded fodders and effect of these | | | | improvements for rural communities throughout the |
| improved method of pasture development on | | | | state. However, population explosion has transformed |
| disease control and profits from livestock were | | | | California into an urban state, with changing societal |
| analysed. (Wagenin gem et al, 2001). Thus, the | | | | issues, values and priorities. Agricultural extension |
| extension education programmes should ensure | | | | programmes continue to directly serve a declining |
| facilitation of Farmer empowerment and not | | | | number of clientale that represent less than 1.5% of |
| dependence on subsidy. This means incorporating | | | | the population. Financial support for extension is |
| studies and programmes of Agri-livestock economics, | | | | decreasing at the country and state levels, thus such |
| grass land and rangeland management, crop and tree | | | | models used by us in SAU could be catastrophic and |
| production in Agri-extension curricula. | | | | need change. |
| (ii) African Model | | | | Iranian Model |
| A new participating approach of clubbing local and | | | | Iran is one of the world’s top ten horticultural |
| outside knowledge to solve the agricultural problem is | | | | producers. However, post-harvest losses in Iran are |
| needed. Innovative approaches for soil and water | | | | six times greater than the world average. Even after |
| conservation in Ethiopia and Tanzania were helpful. A | | | | establishing an agricultural extension Service, Iran still |
| new model of participatory modified Technology | | | | experiences great problems in reducing post-harvest |
| development approach is fast being recognized, as | | | | losses (Jowkar, 2005). Results revealed that |
| the only way of clubbing traditional and modern | | | | education, material possession, mass media exposure, |
| technologies for agri-development . (Kib Wana et al | | | | extension contact, scientific orientation and risk |
| 2000) | | | | preference were significantly and positively correlated |
| (iii) Dutch Model | | | | with the knowledge level of farmers pre- and post |
| The total reformation of agricultural technology | | | | training. (Malite et al , 2005. |
| transfer shall need refinement of elementary | | | | Issues |
| methodologies used in extension consisting of PRA, | | | | Agricultural development programmes often produce |
| PERT or other specific managemental, communication | | | | unexpected results. This can be attributed to the |
| and modern GIS- Geographic Information System | | | | fact that the target farmers already have their own |
| use. This would involve a total change in Extension | | | | knowledge and competencies that determine their |
| Education, objectives, methodology & course | | | | practices. In order to be adopted, an innovation has |
| curriculum. We need agricultural networking for | | | | first to be discussed, and then appropriated by a local |
| bringing out results of transferable technologies. | | | | group of farmers in their system of knowledge and |
| Experimental learning and knowledge sharing has to | | | | in their system of meaning; subsequently the |
| be incorporated, as research on farmers field. | | | | innovation may be rejected or adopted by all the |
| Farmers have to be part of our learning and | | | | farmers concerned (Mathieu, 2004). |
| experimentation process. Dutch model could be used. | | | | Problems |
| (Leeuwis, 2000) in India to ensure quick technology | | | | The findings also revealed that the attitudes of the |
| use. Let us evaluate technology use. It has been | | | | respondents were significantly and positively related |
| seen that some progressive farmers have awareness | | | | to education, organizational membership, land holding, |
| of technology but being absentee farmers, their | | | | contact with extension agent , mass media exposure, |
| workers have no knowledge or skills to use them in | | | | socio-economic status, awareness, income and |
| the field. Is it time to come out of “Technology | | | | material possession. Lack of proper technical |
| dissemination Scenario” to “Technology Use | | | | knowledge, lack of irrigation facility and high cost of |
| Status in the field” and “Productivity gain | | | | fertilizers/chemical were indicated as the three most |
| assessment models” . | | | | important problems of the tribal farm women run |
| (iv) Mohi – Model – (Proposed Model) | | | | agriculture farms. (Bharali et al, 2004). |
| Experience learning, market designs, farm economics, | | | | New Vistas |
| sustainable agriculture, Agri-information, | | | | Agricultural extension is evolving world wide, and |
| communication skills and farm business shall be the | | | | there is much emphasis today on community-based |
| knowledge bank available to Agri-Extension & | | | | mechanisms of dissemination in order to bring |
| communication experts, whom we should name | | | | sustainable change. The factors that make farmer |
| “FBM” – “Farm Business Management | | | | groups successful in disseminating information and |
| Experts”. The Extension Education is outdated | | | | technologies need to be analyzed. A mixed |
| and too oftenly used and misunderstood phrase. | | | | methodology, multiple-stage approach was used to |
| Extension includes now every attempt to | | | | obtain data. Dairy-goat farmer groups (n=46) and |
| communicate with farmers. Today’s extension | | | | individual farmers (n=88) were interviewed. Factors |
| agencies can be university scientists, Subject matter | | | | that were associated with group success in |
| specialists, Agri experts, farmers or even partially Agri | | | | dissemination included member participation, degree |
| known NGO or their agents. Thus, the whole blame | | | | of jealousy within the group, homogeneity of |
| of others has to be shared by University experts. | | | | members, group capacity, number of linkages and |
| Agri-University, applied knowledge has to be | | | | type of group (Project-supported versus |
| communicated to farmers as “end product” | | | | non-supported). Some interventions that may |
| as pharmaceutical companies do. Thus all the current | | | | increase the success of groups in dissemination |
| “building block” , known knowledge has to be | | | | include capacity- building , increasing linkages with |
| computerized and stored. This has to be reshaped | | | | other extension stakeholders, providing an |
| and re-arranged as knowledge packs for innovative | | | | environment for groups to form, using established |
| and whole farming capsules rather than one | | | | groups (as compared to forming new groups), and |
| commodity knowledge sharing as in the west. We do | | | | encouraging groups to form around common |
| have commodity but not composite agriculture | | | | interests rather than for other reasons. (Davis et al, |
| packages. A booklet on its composite effects has | | | | 2004). Some methods in this direction are |
| been published as Broad Based Extension Education | | | | documented (Wani,2008 a). |