| Socio-technical theory & Organizational Culture | | | | problems would be found to complain about. |
| Socio-Technical Systems (STS) is "concerned with | | | | David Haas (2003) who leads Collaborative Change |
| the interactions between the psychological and social | | | | Management team at the Altarum Institute, |
| factors and the needs and demands of the human | | | | Alexandria, Virginia assisted the military in identifying |
| part of the organization, and its structural and | | | | the critical factors for acquisition success. Of the top |
| technological requirements." (Szewczak, 2002, p. 107). | | | | ten critical factors for success, user involvement was |
| In organizational development, STS is an approach to | | | | number two second to executive support. (p. 12 - |
| complex organizational work design that recognizes | | | | 13). One method of reducing the fear and resistance |
| the interaction between people and technology in | | | | is for leaders and followers to design the |
| workplaces. Initially, practitioners looked at optimizing | | | | socio-technical systems simultaneously and jointly. |
| the requirements of technology with the needs of | | | | "Through faith we understand that the worlds were |
| humans. However, McLoughlin (1999) asserted "The | | | | framed by the word of God, so that things which |
| chief lesson of the research was that if management | | | | are seen were not made of things which do not |
| concentrated on maximizing their economic gains by | | | | appear." (Hebrews 11:3). Involving employees in the |
| improving the technological system of the | | | | acquisition process provides a sense of commitment |
| organization without similar attention to the social | | | | and faithfulness to the organization. |
| system, then the economic benefits would be less." | | | | Empowerment |
| (p. 136). In the pursuit of economic efficiency, an STS | | | | Another major impact for organizational management |
| approach must take into account both elements as | | | | caused by the adoption of technology is integration. |
| well as how they affect the organizational culture. | | | | Although organizations have always been concerned |
| Organizational culture comprises the attitudes, values, | | | | about change management, the introduction of new |
| beliefs, norms and customs of an organization and is | | | | technology significantly affects the breadth and |
| considered to be intangible and difficult to measure. In | | | | depth of change. Sarmento (2005) asserted "One |
| describing organizational culutre, Trompenaars and | | | | major impact on the organization is on how they |
| Woolliams (2003) use the analogy of an onion that | | | | manage and control processes, relationships and |
| can be distinguished in three distinct layers (p. 25 - | | | | projects. The fundamental challenge to management |
| 27). The first layer is the outer layer and consists of | | | | is the need to implement the processes and |
| what people primarily associate with culture (i. e. | | | | infrastructure that support information management." |
| clothes, food, language, organizational charts, etc.) | | | | (p. 281). In order to be successful, organizations must |
| The second, and middle, layer refers to the norms | | | | undertake major changes that include changing |
| and values of an organization (i.e. right and wrong or | | | | existing work processes and transitioning workers to |
| good and bad). Finally, the third layer is the deepest | | | | new roles and skills. "A major concern of corporate |
| inner layer of the onion which is the level of implicit | | | | leaders and managers is how to effectively, |
| culture which results from human beings organizing to | | | | efficiently, and quickly transform an organization from |
| reconcile frequently occurring dilemmas (e.g. The daily | | | | an older business design and model to one that is |
| routine of problem-solving). | | | | competitive and fully operational in the digital business |
| The Right Technology at the Right Time | | | | world." (Sarmento, 2005, p. 282). Leaders and |
| Davis (1997) observed that "The process begins with | | | | managers must function as fully informed change |
| a transformation of scientific thought, with new | | | | agents, anticipating the need for transformation and |
| perceptions about how the world works."(p. 147). | | | | carefully guiding the organization through |
| How often have you tried to contact customer | | | | implementation of all the facets of new work |
| service of your local power company, or the help | | | | paradigms. Oden (1999) suggested "Other things |
| desk of your Internet provider, or even ordered a | | | | being equal, the greater the total degree of |
| pizza from pizza hut and found yourself annoyed by | | | | integration or fit among the various components, the |
| the awkward recording? Every organization at some | | | | more effective the organization will be." (p. 309). |
| point has to cope with the idea of 'the right | | | | The integration may be gradual or quick, narrowly or |
| technology, at the right time.' "[T]he technical aspect | | | | widely focused, involve only internal components or |
| of needs for efficiency and economic return should | | | | extensively involve customers, suppliers and other |
| be viewed as interrelated with concern for the | | | | external entities. Major characteristics and processes |
| human aspect of every organization." (Wren, 2005, p. | | | | for successfully managing the transition include vision, |
| 292). | | | | process reengineering, and architecture redesign |
| Understanding the Interrelationship | | | | knowledge and skills. |
| Each organization has its own particular cultural | | | | "[Socio-technical] infrastructure is complex, requires |
| dynamics which vary in contexts, structures, and | | | | high levels of consistency and reliability, and often is |
| power relations. Any discussion of socio-technical | | | | globally implemented." (Sarmento, 2005, p. 283). For |
| change must also recognize an overarching set of | | | | example, employees must acquire new skill sets for |
| beliefs and assumptions about technology that | | | | rapid development and implementation. Managers |
| informs the processes of adaptation. Technology is | | | | need to understand the capabilities and limitations of |
| not 'merely' a collection of bits and pieces, | | | | new technologies and develop strategies for |
| components, or design elements. McLaughlin (1999) | | | | integration into existing administrative structures and |
| contends "[Technology] should be regarded as an | | | | policies. |
| ensemble, whose component parts and their | | | | Technological innovations by themselves introduce |
| composition are held together by social relations | | | | new challenges for leaders and followers. For |
| among people, as much as by more physical ties such | | | | example, using leader-follower integrated planning |
| as screws, bolts or electrons." (p. 2). The social and | | | | teams to develop administrative policies. Just as |
| technical systems must integrate and assist one | | | | Jesus empowered his disciples in Mark 6:7, "he gave |
| another. | | | | them power against unclean spirits" managers must |
| Reinforcing Organizational Values | | | | empower their followers by extensively involving |
| How do organizations use STS to reinforce | | | | them in the integration process. Davis (1996) |
| organizational values? Organizations develop and | | | | asserted, "Manage the context, and let subordinates |
| employ technology in service of their mission, but | | | | manage the content. And let them do the same - |
| also in service of their vision, values, and day-to-day | | | | and so on down the hierarchy, until the technology of |
| operating requirements. Technology has the potential | | | | the new economy and the values of the new |
| to liberate people and processes to greatly enhance | | | | society together evolve into the network that is |
| creativity, performance, and quality, while reducing | | | | now replacing the old order." (p. 122). |
| costs. Holman (2003) stated that "The reason for the | | | | Autonomous Teams |
| change will greatly affect its nature."(p. 333). As our | | | | The third area in which socio-technical systems |
| society focuses on technology development, | | | | reinforce values is in managing the system. |
| organizations are undergoing massive transformations | | | | Socio-technical approaches include job enrichment as |
| to integrate technology into future operations. Human | | | | a design strategy and in addition emphasize worker |
| consideration in technological advances has a critical | | | | and work group autonomy. When Jesus empowered |
| area in this transformation. "When any new | | | | his disciples in Mark 6:7, he also sent them out in |
| technology is introduced, it is important that the user | | | | autonomous teams "by two and two". The purpose |
| population have a positive attitude towards the new | | | | of going out in pairs may have been to bolster |
| technology. For it to be successful, any new | | | | credibility by having the testimony of more than one |
| technology needs to be understood and valued by | | | | witness, as well as to provide mutual support during |
| the users. (Szewczak, 2002, p. 108). | | | | their training period but he gave them, knowledge, |
| The users of this new technology, from an | | | | power, and autonomy. Oden (1999) argued "Sub-units |
| organizational context, are bound together by | | | | and teams should be relatively autonomous in |
| organizational culture which provides them with a | | | | comparison to previous organizational eras."(p. 236). |
| common viewpoint, shared beliefs, or values. These | | | | Rather than providing traditional supervision, |
| values help them understand the activities of others | | | | technology will allow managers to coach, assist with |
| in the organization, and it guides their own activities | | | | problem solving, and provide linkage to top |
| within and on behalf of the organization. "Because the | | | | management, to other organizational units, and to |
| shared beliefs include values about what is desirable | | | | other organizations. Upper management should simply |
| and undesirable how things should and should not be, | | | | set goals, supply resources and manages the culture. |
| they dictate the kinds of activities that are legitimate | | | | "When workers were asked to suggest changes to |
| and the kinds that are illegitimate." (McLaughlin, 1999, | | | | the way in which their work was organized, the |
| p. 67). When followers participate in the embedding | | | | result was the setting up of autonomous work |
| of technology, their values are also rooted in the | | | | groups, individuals taking on more varied job tasks, |
| resulting socio-technical organization. Embedding | | | | and a flattened management hierarchy." (Chmiel, |
| technology occurs in three major areas. Leaders can | | | | 1998, p. 114). The effectiveness of technology |
| build commitment during the acquisition of technology. | | | | depends in part on suitable ways of organizing |
| During the integration of technology into the | | | | workers to use it. |
| organizational culture leaders can inspire | | | | References |
| empowerment. And through the proper management | | | | Chmiel, Nik. (1998). Jobs, Technology & People. |
| of the resulting socio-technical systems leaders can | | | | Florence, KY. Routledge. |
| encourage teamwork and autonomy. | | | | Davis, Stan (1996). Future Perfect. Reading, MA. |
| Commitment | | | | Addison-Wesley Books. |
| Why do people complain about new technology? | | | | Haas, David (2003). Government-wide Information |
| Technology acquisition is the process by which a | | | | Technology (IT) Acquisitions. Increasing Likelihood of |
| company acquires the rights to use and exploit a | | | | Success Through Leadership and Integrated Planning |
| technology for the purpose of improving work | | | | Teams Development. Alexandria, VA. Altarum. |
| processes, products, or services. From the top-down | | | | Retrieved Electronically January 28, 2006. |
| view, managers fear the loss of control. Managers | | | | Holman, David (2003). The New Workplace: A Guide |
| desire new technology to increase production and | | | | to the Human Impact of Modern Working Practices. |
| maintain control but during introduction they discover | | | | Hoboken, N.J. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.(UK), 2003. |
| flaws such as poorly defined requirements and user | | | | Holy Bible (1999). King James Version. Study Bible. |
| dissatisfaction. Yates and Maanen (2001) maintained | | | | Grand Rapids, MI. |
| that managerial assumptions regarding control are | | | | McLaughlin, Janice. (1999). Valuing Technology: |
| incorrect and relationships between workers, | | | | Organizations Culture and Change. |
| supervisors, and top management are frequently | | | | London, GBR. Routledge. |
| altered by new technologies. (p. 207). Beekman and | | | | McLoughlin, Ian. (1999). Creative Technological Change: |
| Quinn (2006) discussed how technology contributes | | | | The Shaping of Technology and Organizations. |
| to organizational culture by providing: "flatter" | | | | London, UK: Routledge. |
| hierarchies, making it easier for workers at different | | | | Oden, Howard W. (1999). Transforming the |
| levels to communicate; "increased integration" so | | | | Organization: A Socio-Technical Approach. Westport, |
| departments can communicate openly; and "increased | | | | CT. Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. |
| flexibility" allowing businesses to quickly react to | | | | Sarmento, Anabela (2005). Issues of Human |
| changes. (p. 429-430). | | | | Computer Interaction. Hershey, PA. IRM Press. |
| From the bottom-up view the simple answer to why | | | | Szewczak, Edward J.(Editor). (2002). Managing the |
| people complain about technology may simply be | | | | Human Side of Information Technology: Challenges |
| because they disapprove of the change itself. People | | | | and Solutions. Hershey, PA. Idea Group Publishing. |
| at all levels tend to resist change when they don't | | | | Trompenaars, Fon and Woolliams, Peter (2003). |
| clearly understand the motivations behind the | | | | Business Across Cultures. West Sussex, England, UK. |
| changes. Yates and Maanen (2001) discussed a | | | | Capstone Publishing. |
| "culture of complaint" which results from cynicism and | | | | Yates, JoAnne and Maanen, John V. (2001). |
| negative attitudes toward organizational changes. (p. | | | | Information Technology and Organizational |
| 174 - 175). The notion is that even if the current | | | | Transformation. History, Rhetoric, and Practice. |
| problems with technology were solved, other | | | | Thousands Oaks, CA. Sage Publications, Inc. |